Extension services denote knowledge transfer and it is rooted in adult education, communication science, community development, rural development and international development [1]. More recently, extension services are not only regarded as means of transferring knowledge but instead as a form of multiple stakeholder processes where scientific knowledge is combined with local know-how in order to develop the practices (1). One way of defining extension services is as a partnership between state, federal and local governments in order to provide information to the public [2] . Even though public actors traditionally have a strong role in the field of extension services, increasing amount of these services are being privatised (1, 2, [3] ).
Connection to food
Extension services have a strong link to agricultural research and practice, thus one major category of such services is agriculture extension services (1). Agriculture extension services or "agricultural extension" refers to professional communication of organisations in order to spread knowledge and technologies in [[rural areas|rural areas[4] . Adapting new technologies in agriculture is considered as one of the main ways to improve production and overcoming the unethical work conditions in the food sector (3, [5]). However, farmers generally lack information and knowledge about different technologies, which is why extension services are needed (3).
Different types of agriculture extension services are, indeed, one of the main sources of information for farmers regarding the efficient use of new farming technologies ([6] 5, [7] ). These services consist of several parts such as:
Diagnosis of farmers' socio-economic and agro-ecological conditions, opportunities and constraints
Providing feedback to the researchers about the new technologies
Communicating in different ways such as messages that includes advice, awareness creation, skill development or education (4)
These services are traditionally provided by the government but just as other types of extension services, also the agricultural ones are shifting more and more towards the private sector (1, 3, 7, 2). One of the reasons for this shift is the failure of the national governments to provide adequate level of extension services (3), as well as its inconsistencies in bureaucracy, lack of new information and flexibility (2).
The video below explains how extension services are developed in Kenya in order to improve the safety and efficiency of agriculture:
Critique
Some evidence exists of extension services being an efficient way to distribute information and to engage the farmers in adopting a new technology (6, 3, 5), while other research have concluded more mixed results on the efficiency of these services (4). Whether the extension services are regarded useful or not is highly dependent on several quality attributes (3) such as the skills of the extension workers, which requires continuous assessment (4, 6). Other such quality criteria include relevance of the service, availability, the adequacy of the level of the service, timeliness, and efficiency in the monitoring and evaluation of the service (3). Agricultural extension services have been widely criticised due to insufficient coverage of the services, inadequate public funding, complexities involved in the service, and lack of political support [8]
Links to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
When considering the aim of agriculture extension services of spreading the knowledge and use of new technologies in agriculture (6), there is a clear link to SDG 2. One of the targets of SDG 2 is, actually to increase the investments in extension services in order to ensure productivity in the area of agriculture, and this way strive towards zero hunger [9].
Other less obvious linkages to SDGs have to do with SDG 17, SDG 8 and SDG 4. First of all, SGD 17 (Global Partnerships) aims for instance at enhancing the use of technologies and spreading the knowledge about them between countries and in corporation of different types of actors (9) , extension services being one form of knowledge transfer. Secondly, SDG8 (Decent work and economic growth) aims at achieving higher level of productivity by making use of new technologies (9), which is also one of the major objectives of agriculture extension services (6). Lastly, SDG 4 regarding education strives towards people having equal opportunities to access any level of education (9). Extension services, especially if they are provided by the public sector can be regarded as a part of the professional education. However, many states are starting to privatise these services, which could undermine the accessibility since it indicates more costs for the farmers (4, 7, 2, 1, 3)
Illustration of corporate praxis
The private sector has increasing role in agricultural extension services provision (1, 3, 7, 2), and several multinational companies regard supporting the farmers as part of their social responsibility strategy. One such example is Knorr (part of Unilever), who has partnered with Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) in order to support smallholder farmers to improve their farming practices [10]. Furthermore, Unilever is part of several projects where the aim is to enhance especially women farmers' skills and education [11].
Examples from Finland
Proagria is one of the main private sector agricultural extension service providers in Finland. They offer different types of services for several agricultural actors in milk, organic production, plant, meat, food production and health to name a few [12] . The members of the organization have the possibility to use the range of services Proagria offers such as consultancy of investments, leadership, finance, production, sales and marketing [13] . One of example of the type of events Proagria is organising is a social media consultation session where they share information of why the members should be active in social media and how to do it [14] .
Proagria is more of a traditional example of extension services provider, but as mentioned several private companies are making an effort in participating extension services provision, such as Paulig. Paulig, among other coffee companies such as Löfberg and Latazza, is a member in International Coffee Partners , which has several projects going on in the developing countries in order to enhance the farmers ability to produce coffee beans productively, adapt to climate change, and make their living regardless of the resource degradation. [15] (12)
^ Karbasioun. M., Mulder, M. & Biemans, H. (2007). Towards a Job Competency Profile for Agricultural Extension Instructors - a Survey of Views of Experts. Human Resource Development International, 10 (2), pp. 137-152.
^ Adetayo, A. & Eunice, B. (2013). Privatization of Agricultural Extension Services in Nigeria: A Fallacy? Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 2 (1), pp. 14-22.
^ Buadi, D., Anaman K. & Kwarteng, J. (2013). Farmers’ perception of the quality of extension services provided by non-governmental organisations in two municipalities in the Central Region of Ghana. Agricultural Systems, 12, pp. 20-26.
^ ]]
Qtaishat, T. & AL-Sharafat, A. (2012). Attitudes of Vegetable Farmers Towards Public Agricultural Extension Services. American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 7 (3), pp. 370-377.
^ Sarker, A & Itohara, Y. (2009). Farmers’ Perception about the Extension Services and Extension Workers: The Case of Organic Agriculture Extension Program by PROSHIKA. Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 4 (4), pp. 332-337.
^ Genius, M., Koundouri, P., Nauges, C. & Tzouvelekas, V. (2013). Information Transmission in Irrigation Technology Adoption and Diffusion: Social learning, Extension Services, and Spatial Effects. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 96 (1), pp. 328-344.
^ Labarthe, P. (2009). Extension services and multifunctional agriculture. Lessons learnt from French and Dutch contexts and approaches. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, pp. 193-202.
Definition
Extension services denote knowledge transfer and it is rooted in adult education, communication science, community development, rural development and international development [1]. More recently, extension services are not only regarded as means of transferring knowledge but instead as a form of multiple stakeholder processes where scientific knowledge is combined with local know-how in order to develop the practices (1). One way of defining extension services is as a partnership between state, federal and local governments in order to provide information to the public [2] . Even though public actors traditionally have a strong role in the field of extension services, increasing amount of these services are being privatised (1, 2, [3] ).
Connection to food
Extension services have a strong link to agricultural research and practice, thus one major category of such services is agriculture extension services (1). Agriculture extension services or "agricultural extension" refers to professional communication of organisations in order to spread knowledge and technologies in [[rural areas|rural areas[4] . Adapting new technologies in agriculture is considered as one of the main ways to improve production and overcoming the unethical work conditions in the food sector (3, [5]). However, farmers generally lack information and knowledge about different technologies, which is why extension services are needed (3).
Different types of agriculture extension services are, indeed, one of the main sources of information for farmers regarding the efficient use of new farming technologies ([6] 5, [7] ). These services consist of several parts such as:
These services are traditionally provided by the government but just as other types of extension services, also the agricultural ones are shifting more and more towards the private sector (1, 3, 7, 2). One of the reasons for this shift is the failure of the national governments to provide adequate level of extension services (3), as well as its inconsistencies in bureaucracy, lack of new information and flexibility (2).
The video below explains how extension services are developed in Kenya in order to improve the safety and efficiency of agriculture:
Critique
Some evidence exists of extension services being an efficient way to distribute information and to engage the farmers in adopting a new technology (6, 3, 5), while other research have concluded more mixed results on the efficiency of these services (4). Whether the extension services are regarded useful or not is highly dependent on several quality attributes (3) such as the skills of the extension workers, which requires continuous assessment (4, 6). Other such quality criteria include relevance of the service, availability, the adequacy of the level of the service, timeliness, and efficiency in the monitoring and evaluation of the service (3). Agricultural extension services have been widely criticised due to insufficient coverage of the services, inadequate public funding, complexities involved in the service, and lack of political support [8]
Links to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
When considering the aim of agriculture extension services of spreading the knowledge and use of new technologies in agriculture (6), there is a clear link to SDG 2. One of the targets of SDG 2 is, actually to increase the investments in extension services in order to ensure productivity in the area of agriculture, and this way strive towards zero hunger [9].
Other less obvious linkages to SDGs have to do with SDG 17, SDG 8 and SDG 4. First of all, SGD 17 (Global Partnerships) aims for instance at enhancing the use of technologies and spreading the knowledge about them between countries and in corporation of different types of actors (9) , extension services being one form of knowledge transfer. Secondly, SDG8 (Decent work and economic growth) aims at achieving higher level of productivity by making use of new technologies (9), which is also one of the major objectives of agriculture extension services (6). Lastly, SDG 4 regarding education strives towards people having equal opportunities to access any level of education (9). Extension services, especially if they are provided by the public sector can be regarded as a part of the professional education. However, many states are starting to privatise these services, which could undermine the accessibility since it indicates more costs for the farmers (4, 7, 2, 1, 3)
Illustration of corporate praxis
The private sector has increasing role in agricultural extension services provision (1, 3, 7, 2), and several multinational companies regard supporting the farmers as part of their social responsibility strategy. One such example is Knorr (part of Unilever), who has partnered with Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) in order to support smallholder farmers to improve their farming practices [10]. Furthermore, Unilever is part of several projects where the aim is to enhance especially women farmers' skills and education [11].
Examples from Finland
Proagria is one of the main private sector agricultural extension service providers in Finland. They offer different types of services for several agricultural actors in milk, organic production, plant, meat, food production and health to name a few [12] . The members of the organization have the possibility to use the range of services Proagria offers such as consultancy of investments, leadership, finance, production, sales and marketing [13] . One of example of the type of events Proagria is organising is a social media consultation session where they share information of why the members should be active in social media and how to do it [14] .
Proagria is more of a traditional example of extension services provider, but as mentioned several private companies are making an effort in participating extension services provision, such as Paulig. Paulig, among other coffee companies such as Löfberg and Latazza, is a member in International Coffee Partners , which has several projects going on in the developing countries in order to enhance the farmers ability to produce coffee beans productively, adapt to climate change, and make their living regardless of the resource degradation. [15] (12)
Open Source Articles
Labarthe, P. (2009). Extension services and multifunctional agriculture. Lessons learnt from the French and Dutch contexts and approaches. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, pp. 193-202. Accessed: 25.4.2017.
Anaeto, F., Asiabaka, C., Nnadi, F., Ajaero, J., Aja, O., Ugwoke, F., Ukpongson, M. & Ongweagba, A. (2012). The role of extension officers and extension services in the development of agriculture in Nigeria. Wudpecker Journal of Agricultural Research, 1 (6), pp. 180-185. Accessed: 25.4.2017.
Reynolds, K. (2011). Expanding technical assistance for urban agriculture: Best practices for extension services in California and beyond. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, Advance online publication. Accessed: 25.4.2017.
External links
Agriculture for impact
Farm Africa
International Food Policy Research Institute
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
Quiz
Quiz created by Mari Vesikivi with GoConqr
Qtaishat, T. & AL-Sharafat, A. (2012). Attitudes of Vegetable Farmers Towards Public Agricultural Extension Services. American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 7 (3), pp. 370-377.